Accounting Methods

An accounting method is a set of rules used to determine when and how income and expenses are reported.

Figure taxable income using the method of accounting regularly used in keeping the corporation's books and records. Generally, permissible methods include:

• Cash,
• Accrual, or
• Any other method authorized by the Internal Revenue Code.

In all cases, the method used must clearly show taxable income. If inventories are required, the accrual method must be used for sales and purchases of merchandise. However, qualifying taxpayers and eligible businesses of qualifying small business taxpayers are excepted from using the accrual method and may account for inventoriable items as materials and supplies that are not incidental. For details, see Schedule A - Cost of Goods Sold on page 15.

Generally, a corporation (other than a qualified personal service corporation) must use the accrual method of accounting if its average annual gross receipts exceed $5 million. See section 448(c). A corporation engaged in farming operations must also use the accrual method. For exceptions, see section 447.

Under the accrual method, an amount is includible in income when:

• All the events have occurred that fix the right to receive the income, which is the earliest of the date (a) the required performance takes place, (b) payment is due, or (c) payment is received and
• The amount can be determined with reasonable accuracy.

See Regulations section 1.451-1(a) for details.

Generally, an accrual basis taxpayer can deduct accrued expenses in the tax year when:

• All events that determine the liability have occurred,
• The amount of the liability can be figured with reasonable accuracy, and
• Economic performance takes place with respect to the expense.

There are exceptions to the economic performance rule for certain items, including recurring expenses. See section 461(h) and the related regulations for the rules for determining when economic performance takes place.

Long-term contracts (except for certain real property construction contracts) must generally be accounted for using the percentage of completion method described in section 460. See section 460 and the underlying regulations for rules on long-term contracts.

Mark-to-market accounting method. Generally, dealers in securities must use the mark-to-market accounting method described in section 475. Under this method, any security that is inventory to the dealer must be included in inventory at its fair market value (FMV). Any security held by a dealer that is not inventory and that is held at the close of the tax year is treated as sold at its FMV on the last business day of the tax year. Any gain or loss must be taken into account in determining gross income. The gain or loss taken into account is generally treated as ordinary gain or loss. For details, including exceptions, see section 475, the related regulations, and Rev. Rul. 94-7, 1994-1 C.B. 151.

Dealers in commodities and traders in securities and commodities may elect to use the mark-to-market accounting method. To make the election, the corporation must file a statement describing the election, the first tax year the election is to be effective, and, in the case of an election for traders in securities or commodities, the trade or business for which the election is made. Except for new taxpayers, the statement must be filed by the due date (not including extensions) of the income tax return for the tax year immediately preceding the election year and attached to that return, or if applicable, to a request for an extension of time to file that return. For details, see Rev. Proc. 99-17, 1999-1 C.B. 503 and sections 475(e) and (f).

Change in accounting method. Generally, the corporation must get IRS consent to change the method of accounting used to report taxable income (for income as a whole or for any material item). To do so, it must file Form 3115, Application for Change in Accounting Method. For more information, see Pub. 538, Accounting Periods and Methods.

The corporation may also have to make an adjustment to prevent amounts of income or expense from being duplicated or omitted. This is called a section 481(a) adjustment, which is taken into account over a period not to exceed 4 years.

Example. A corporation changes to the cash method of accounting. It accrued sales in 2000 for which it received payment in 2001. It must report those sales in both years as a result of changing its accounting method and must make a section 481(a) adjustment to prevent duplication of income.

See Rev. Proc 99-49, 1999-2 C.B. 725, to figure the amount of this adjustment for 2001. Include any positive section 481(a) adjustment on page 3, Section II, line 10. If the section 481(a) adjustment is negative, report it on line 27 of Section II.

Accounting Periods

A corporation must figure its taxable income on the basis of a tax year. The tax year is the annual accounting period the corporation uses to keep its records and report its income and expenses. Generally, corporations can use a calendar year or a fiscal year. Personal service corporations, however, must generally use a calendar year unless they meet one of the exceptions discussed in Accounting period under Item O - Personal Service Corporation on page 9. Furthermore, special rules apply to specified foreign corporations. See Specified Foreign Corporations below.

For more information about accounting periods, see Temporary Regulations sections 1.441-1T, 1.441-2T, and Pub. 538.

Calendar year. If the calendar year is adopted as the annual accounting period, the corporation must maintain its books and records and report its income and expenses for the period from January 1 through December 31 of each year.

Fiscal year. A fiscal year is 12 consecutive months ending on the last day of any month except December. A 52-53-week year is a fiscal year that varies from 52 to 53 weeks.

Adoption of tax year. A corporation adopts a tax year when it files its first income tax return. It must adopt a tax year by the due date (not including extensions) of its first income tax return.

Change of tax year. Generally, a corporation must get the consent of the IRS before changing its tax year by filing Form 1128, Application To Adopt, Change, or Retain a Tax Year. However, under certain conditions, a corporation (other than a personal service corporation) may change its tax year without getting the consent. See Regulations section 1.442-1 and Pub. 538.

Specified Foreign Corporations

The annual accounting period of a specified foreign corporation (defined below) is generally required to be the tax year of its majority U.S. shareholder. If there is more than one majority shareholder, the required tax year will be the tax year that results in the least aggregate deferral of income to all U.S. shareholders of the foreign corporation. For more information, see section 898.

Specified foreign corporation. A specified foreign corporation is any foreign corporation:

• That is treated as a controlled foreign corporation (CFC) under subpart F (sections 951 through 964) or is a foreign personal holding company (as defined in section 552) and
• In which more than 50% of the total voting power or value of all classes of stock of the corporation is treated as owned by a U.S. shareholder.

A specified foreign corporation that wishes to change to any other U.S. tax year (or change to its pre-change year) must get the consent of the IRS using the procedures of section 442 and the related regulations. For details, see Notice 95-13, 1995-1 C.B. 296.

Rounding Off to Whole Dollars

The corporation may show amounts on the return and accompanying schedules as whole dollars. To do so, drop amounts less than 50 cents and increase amounts from 50 cents through 99 cents to the next higher dollar.

Recordkeeping

Keep the corporation's records for as long as they may be needed for the administration of any provision of the Internal Revenue Code. Usually, records that support an item of income, deduction, or credit on the return must be kept for 3 years from the date the return is due or filed, whichever is later. Keep records that verify the corporation's basis in property for as long as they are needed to figure the basis of the original or replacement property.

The corporation should keep copies of all filed returns. They help in preparing future and amended returns.

Payment of Tax Due

The requirements for payment of tax depend on whether the foreign corporation has an office or place of business in the United States.

Foreign corporations that do not maintain an office or place of business in the United States must pay the tax due (page 1, line 8) in full no later than the 15th day of the 6th month after the end of the tax year.

The tax must be paid directly to the IRS (i.e., do not use the depository method of tax payment described below). The tax may be paid by check or money order, payable to the United States Treasury. To help ensure proper crediting, write the corporation's employer identification number (EIN), Form 1120-F, and the tax period to which the payment applies on the check or money order. Enclose the payment when the corporation files Form 1120-F with the Internal Revenue Service Center, Philadelphia, PA 19255.

Foreign corporations that do maintain an office or place of business in the United States must pay the tax due (page 1, line 8) in full no later than the 15th day of the 3rd month after the end of the tax year.

Depository Method of Tax Payment

Foreign corporations that maintain an office or place of business in the United States may use either of the two methods of depositing corporate income taxes discussed below.

Electronic Deposit Requirement

The corporation must make electronic deposits of all depository taxes (such as employment tax, excise tax, and corporate income tax) using the Electronic Tax Payment System (EFTPS) in 2002 if:

• The total deposits of such taxes in 2000 were more than $200,000 or
• The corporation was required to use EFTPS in 2001.

If the corporation is required to use EFTPS and fails to do so, it may be subject to a 10% penalty. If the corporation is not required to use EFTPS, it may participate voluntarily. To enroll in or get more information about EFTPS, call 1-800-555-4477 or 1-800-945-8400. To enroll online, visit www.eftps.gov.

Depositing on time. For EFTPS deposits to be made timely, the corporation must initiate the transaction at least 1 business day before the date the deposit is due.

Deposits With Form 8109

If the corporation does not use EFTPS, deposit corporation income tax payments (and estimated tax payments) with Form 8109, Federal Tax Deposit Coupon. If you do not have a preprinted Form 8109, use Form 8109-B to make deposits. You can get this form by calling 1-800-829-1040. Be sure to have your EIN ready when you call.

Do not send deposits directly to an IRS office; otherwise, the corporation may have to pay a penalty. Mail or deliver the completed Form 8109 with the payment to an authorized depositary, i.e., a commercial bank or other financial institution authorized to accept Federal tax deposits. Make checks or money orders payable to the depositary.

If the corporation prefers, it may mail the coupon and payment to: Financial Agent, Federal Tax Deposit Processing, P.O. Box 970030, St. Louis, MO 63197. Make the check or money order payable to Financial Agent.

To help ensure proper crediting, write the corporation's EIN, the tax period to which the deposit applies, and Form 1120-F on the check or money order. Be sure to darken the 1120 box on the coupon. Records of these deposits will be sent to the IRS.

For more information on deposits, see the instructions in the coupon booklet (Form 8109) and Pub. 583, Starting a Business and Keeping Records.

If the corporation owes tax when it files Form 1120-F, do not include the payment with the tax return. Instead, mail or deliver the payment with Form 8109 to an authorized depositary or use EFTPS, if applicable.

Estimated Tax Payments

Generally, the following rules apply to a foreign corporation's payments of estimated tax.

• The corporation must make installment payments of estimated tax if it expects its total tax for the year (less applicable credits) to be $500 or more.
• The installments are due by the 15th day of the 4th, 6th, 9th, and 12th months of the tax year. If any date falls on a Saturday, Sunday, or legal holiday, the installment is due on the next regular business day.
• Use Form 1120-W, Estimated Tax for Corporations, as a worksheet to compute estimated tax.
• If the foreign corporation maintains an office or place of business in the United States, and does not use EFTPS, use the deposit coupons (Forms 8109) to make deposits of estimated tax.

For more information on estimated tax payments, including penalties that apply if the corporation fails to make required payments, see Line 7. Estimated Tax Penalty on page 8.

Overpaid estimated tax. If the corporation overpaid estimated tax, it may be able to get a quick refund by filing Form 4466, Corporation Application for Quick Refund of Overpayment of Estimated Tax. The overpayment must be at least 10% of the corporation's expected income tax liability and at least $500. File Form 4466 before the 16th day of the 3rd month after the end of the tax year, but before the corporation files its income tax return. Do not file Form 4466 before the end of the corporation's tax year.

Interest and Penalties

Interest. Interest is charged on taxes paid late even if an extension of time to file is granted. Interest is also charged on penalties imposed for failure to file, negligence, fraud, gross valuation overstatements, and substantial understatements of tax from the due date (including extensions) to the date of payment. The interest charge is figured at a rate determined under section 6621.

Penalty for late filing of return. A corporation that does not file its tax return by the due date, including extensions, may be penalized 5% of the unpaid tax for each month or part of a month the return is late, up to a maximum of 25% of the unpaid tax. The minimum penalty for a return that is over 60 days late is the smaller of the tax due or $100. The penalty will not be imposed if the corporation can show that the failure to file on time was due to reasonable cause. Corporations that file late must attach a statement explaining the reasonable cause.

Penalty for late payment of tax. A corporation that does not pay the tax when due generally may be penalized ½ of 1% of the unpaid tax for each month or part of a month the tax is not paid, up to a maximum of 25% of the unpaid tax. The penalty will not be imposed if the corporation can show that the failure to pay on time was due to reasonable cause.

Trust fund recovery penalty. This penalty may apply if certain excise, income, social security, and Medicare taxes that must be collected or withheld are not collected or withheld, or these taxes are not paid. These taxes are generally reported on Forms 720, 941, 943, or 945. (See Other Forms, Returns, and Statements That May be Required on page 4.) The trust fund recovery penalty may be imposed on all persons who are determined by the IRS to have been responsible for collecting, accounting for, and paying over these taxes, and who acted willfully in not doing so. The penalty is equal to the unpaid trust fund tax. See the instructions for Form 720, Pub. 15 (Circular E), Employer's Tax Guide, or Pub. 51 (Circular A), Agricultural Employer's Tax Guide, for details, including the definition of responsible persons.

Other penalties. Other penalties can be imposed for negligence, substantial understatement of tax, and fraud. See sections 6662 and 6663.

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